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TWELVE PERSPECTIVES IN MANAGEMENT/ORGANIZATION STUDIES Gerald Zeitz - Temple University (P. 1)
Perspective	Bureaucratic, Classical	Scientific Management	H uman Relations	Contingency	Lean/Quality Management	Economic I TCT
Initial decade	1900s	1900s	1940s	1960s	1980s	1900s
Early study taken as model	Weberon bureaucracy; Fayol (1916)	Taylor, Shop Management (1919)	Hawthorne studies (1939)	Burns & Stalker(1961); Woodward (1965)	Deming 1986; Womack 1990	Adam Smith (1776)
Focus of research attention	Formal structure, government agencies	Economic rewards, work flow, job design	Informal interaction, leadership, groups	Fit between structure and contingency factors	Value-adding work processes	Exchange of goods
Concept of person assumed	Instrumental rationality	Economic rationality	Driven by social and control needs	Rational, adaptive	Creative and productive, “theory Y”	Rational, self- interested, and maximizing
Dominant metaphor	Machine	Tool	Organism	Ecological field, cafeteria	Sequential work process	Marketplace
Image of manager	Military officer, scientist	Engineer	Cheerleader, therapist, friend	Judge, test giver	Designer, technician, enabler	Reward setter
Favorite dependent variable	Efficiency, alienation	Productivity per worker	Em ployee satisfaction	Performance, profitability	Efficiency, customer satisfaction	Financial performance
Organization goals	Clear, unitary, defined by top management	Clear, unitary, defined by industrial engineers	Multiple: both conscious and unconscious	Goals vary by organization and department	Should be unitary but often are not	Clear and unitary
Methods typically used	Documents, surveys	Observation, records, quantity	Observation, surveys, interviews	Surveys, documents	Observation and interviews	Mathematical modeling, documents
Primary orientation	Descriptive & prescriptive	Prescriptive	Descriptive & prescriptive	Descriptive & prescriptive	Prescriptive, critical	Descriptive & prescriptive
Type of principles	One best way	One best way, plus discretion	One best way, plus discretion	Several ways, based on contingencies	One best way	One best way
Primary stake holder	Manager, society	Technical specialists	Employees	Manager! technician	Customers, employees	Owners

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TWELVE PERSPECTIVES IN MANAGEMENT/ORGANIZATION STUDIES Gerald Zeitz - Temple University (P. 2)
Perspective	Networks	Cultural	Human Resource	Political	Marx I Labor Process	Complexity & Chaos
Initialdecade	1990s	1980s	1990s	1960s	1960s(1800s)	1980s
Early study taken as model	Roethlisber & Dickson 1943; Burt 1992	Peters & Wa- terman (1982); Deal & Kenne- dy (1982)	Deming (1986); Huselid (1995)	March (1962); French & Raven (1959); Michels	Marx, Capital (1867)	Gleick, Chaos (1987)
Focus of research attention	Enduring dyadic relationships	Values, language, public ceremonies	Actual work content, psychology, careers	Bargaining, influence, power distribution	Inequality of rewards, alienation, labor strife	Change processes; innovation
Concept of person assumed	Externally directed, high need to communicate	High social needs, other- directed	High growth needs, inner- directed	High need for power, utility maximizer	Economically driven, need for actualiza- tion & control	Little control or rationality; reactive and adaptive
Dominant metaphor	The “spiderweb”	Family, tribe, community	Craft work- shop, school	Politics, “Tammany Hall”	Arena for class conflict	Mathematical chaos models
Image of manager	Communica- tor, influence peddler	Priest, mythic hero	Mentor, coach, teacher	Negotiator, referee, politician	Agent of owner, slave driver	Disturbance handler
Favorite dependent variable	Cohesion, influence	Cohesion, organization performance	Employee development & productivity	Distribution of power & rewards	Alienation, distribution of rewards	Emergence and self- organization
Organization goals	Multiple, defined by informal groups	Potentially unitary, stem from collective values	Multiple mdi- vidual goals, compatible with organi- zation goals	Incompatible and conflicting across level & department	Conflict bet- ween capital accumulation and worker fulfillment	Situational, often shifting and redefined
Methods typically used	Surveys and document analysis	Participant observation	Interview, surveys, data- bases	Observation, interviews	Qualitative: documents & observation	Mathematical modelling; qualitative
Primary orientation	Descriptive	Descriptive & prescriptive	Descriptive & prescriptive	Descriptive & critical	Critical	Descriptive
Type of principles	One best way with much discretion	Different best way for each organization	One basic way, tailored to individuals	Many ways, based on situation	Different for managers and workers	Little emphasis on principles
Primary stake holder	All stakeholders	Employees, community	Employees and managers	All stakeholders	Employees	None implied, perhaps researcher